Ancient History of Bangladesh: A Civilization Rooted in Millennia

Bangladesh—the history of this riverine land is not confined to the story of an independent state. Beneath its soil lie thousands of years of human settlement, urban civilisation, agriculture, trade, religious thought, art and cultural development. The lives, economy and civilisation of this region have grown around countless rivers such as the Padma, Meghna, Jamuna, Brahmaputra and Karatoya.

In ancient times the land of present-day Bangladesh belonged to various janapadas and political regions. Pundravardhana, Vanga, Samatata, Harikela, Gauda and Varendra—many such historic janapadas played significant roles in the political, economic and cultural history of Bengal.

Archaeological remains, ancient inscriptions, coins, architecture, literature and the accounts of foreign travellers tell us that developed settlements, administrative systems, commercial networks and centres of learning flourished here for many centuries.

The ancient urban civilisation of Mahasthangarh, the archaeological remains of Wari-Bateshwar, the Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur and the Buddhist establishments of Mainamati bear important testimony to that long history.

In this article we will explore the continuity of Bangladesh's ancient history, the identity of its ancient janapadas, the rise and fall of royal dynasties, and how this land gradually grew into a richly cultured region.

1. The Geography of Ancient Bengal and the Rise of the Janapadas

To understand the history of ancient Bengal, one must first understand its geographical character.

Bengal was the vast delta of the Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system. Countless rivers, fertile silt, wetlands, forests and connections with the sea shaped the way of life of the people of this region.

The rivers created fertile land for agriculture on one hand and opened up riverine transport and trade on the other. As a result, settlements, markets, administrative centres and towns grew along the riverbanks.

The geographical boundaries of ancient Bengal were not the same as those of present-day Bangladesh. The historic region of Bengal extended across present-day Bangladesh as well as the Indian state of West Bengal and some neighbouring areas.

Ancient literature and historical records mention various janapadas. Notable among them:

• Pundravardhana: An important ancient janapada of northern Bengal, centred on Pundranagara or the present Mahasthangarh region.
• Vanga: An ancient janapada and people identified with eastern and south-eastern Bengal.
• Samatata: A historic region of south-eastern Bengal, especially the present Cumilla area and its surroundings.
• Harikela: A historic janapada associated with the eastern and south-eastern parts of ancient Bengal.
• Vikramapura: An ancient janapada centred on the present Munshiganj district, which later became an important political centre under the Chandra and Pala dynasties.
• Srihatta: The ancient identity of the present Sylhet region.
• Gauda: An important political and cultural region in the history of northern and western Bengal.
• Varendra: A historic tract of northern Bengal that remained important even in the later Pala period.

The political boundaries of these janapadas changed from time to time, but their combined history reflects the multi-dimensional identity of ancient Bengal.

Gangaridai: Ancient Vanga in Foreign Records

The mention of Bengal in the accounts of ancient Greek and Roman writers is a special resource for its early history. Greek and Latin texts composed roughly between the fourth century BC and the second century AD speak of a powerful people called the Gangaridai, described as living around the mouths of the Ganga.

Diodorus, Quintus Curtius Rufus, Strabo and Pliny all describe the Gangaridai as militarily formidable. One account states that the army of the Gangaridai king included about 6,000 foot soldiers, 1,000 cavalry and 700 war elephants. Many historians believe it was the fear of this vast elephant force that made the soldiers of Alexander the Great refuse to advance further into India.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a first-century AD navigation guide, and Ptolemy's second-century geography both mention a trading port or market town on the Ganga called Gange. Scholars suggest that the name Gangaridai may derive from the Sanskrit word Gangahrd, meaning "the land that carries the Ganga in its heart". Many researchers equate the Gangaridai with the ancient Vanga janapada. However, research on the exact location and extent of this region is still ongoing.

2. From Prehistoric Settlement to Urban Civilisation

The roots of Bangladesh's history are not confined to written records. Traces of prehistoric human settlement and early ways of life have also been found in this region.

Archaeological investigations have discovered ancient stone tools, pottery, signs of settlement sites and other remains in various areas. These discoveries suggest that people have lived continuously on the land of present-day Bangladesh since very ancient times.

Wari-Bateshwar: Traces of Ancient Trade and Urban Life

Wari-Bateshwar, located in the Belabo and Shibpur upazilas of Narsingdi district, is one of the most important archaeological sites of Bangladesh.

Artefacts found here include:

• Ancient coins, especially punch-marked coins.
• Stone beads and semi-precious stone ornaments.
• Remains of ancient settlement structures and brick architecture.
• Various types of pottery and objects of daily use.
• Evidence of ancient trade and craftsmanship.

Archaeological research has identified remains of the early historic period at Wari-Bateshwar, especially from the fourth and third centuries BC. Research on the dating of even older settlements and remains in this area is still ongoing.

The coins, beads and craft materials found here suggest that the area was an important centre of production and commercial exchange in ancient times.

Some researchers compare Wari-Bateshwar with an important centre of the ancient Gangaridai region. Although the question remains under research, the discovery has opened new ways of thinking about the history of urbanisation, economy and trade in ancient Bangladesh.

3. Mahasthangarh: The History of Ancient Pundranagara

Mahasthangarh is one of the most important monuments of Bangladesh's ancient urban civilisation. Located on the western bank of the Karatoya river in the Shibganj upazila of Bogura district, this archaeological site is associated with ancient Pundranagara or Pundravardhana.

Mahasthangarh is regarded as one of the oldest urban archaeological sites in Bangladesh; its history reaches back at least to the third century BC.

The rampart of the ancient citadel of Mahasthangarh (photo: Masum-al-hasan / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1931 an ancient inscription in Prakrit written in the Brahmi script was discovered here. Known as the Mahasthan Brahmi inscription, this artefact is associated with the Mauryan period and stands among the most important written pieces of evidence of ancient Bengal's history.

The inscription hints at directions for storing food and essential goods for people in times of calamity or crisis, and for administrative support.

It is not merely proof of the existence of an ancient city; it also offers insight into contemporary administration, economy and public welfare systems.

The archaeological remains of Mahasthangarh show that the region remained important under several successive regimes, including the Mauryas, the Guptas and the Palas.

Even today the ruins of the citadel, the foundations of ancient structures, the artefacts and the surrounding historic sites carry the identity of ancient urban life in Bangladesh.

4. The Mauryan Empire and Ancient Bengal's Political Connections

The Mauryan period is an important chapter in the history of ancient Bengal.

Towards the end of the fourth century BC the Mauryan Empire was founded on the Indian subcontinent under Chandragupta Maurya. In the following era the empire's expansion and administrative structure became further organised under Emperor Ashoka.

The Mahasthan Brahmi inscription is one of the most important archaeological pieces of evidence of Mauryan administrative influence in northern Bengal.

Historical research suggests that agriculture, administration, trade and communication systems developed in various parts of Bengal during this period.

However, it would not be correct to assume that all parts of ancient Bengal were under Mauryan rule at the same time or to the same degree. Political control and local governance differed from region to region.

5. The Gupta Empire and Bengal's Political and Cultural Development

From the fourth century AD the influence of the Gupta Empire spread across vast areas of the Indian subcontinent.

Samudragupta's Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Samatata along with several political regions of the east. From this we get an idea of the political relations between the Gupta Empire and various regional rulers of Bengal.

In the Gupta era, administration, land systems, coinage, religious institutions and the use of Sanskrit spread across different parts of Bengal.

Local administrative centres and janapadas flourished in Bengal during this period. Land-grant copperplates and various archaeological remains offer glimpses of contemporary society and economy.

After the central authority of the Gupta Empire weakened, independent and regional powers rose in different parts of Bengal.

6. Shashanka: The Rise of an Independent Gauda Kingdom

Shashanka is a notable name in the political history of Bengal.

At the beginning of the seventh century he founded a powerful kingdom in the Gauda region. He is considered one of the first important independent and well-organised rulers of ancient Bengal.

His capital was Karnasuvarna, associated with the present Murshidabad region of West Bengal, India.

During his reign Gauda's political influence extended across various parts of northern and eastern India. His contemporary political conflicts and relations with the other powers of northern India carry special significance in the history of ancient Bengal.

After Shashanka's death, political instability appeared in the Gauda kingdom, and power struggles among various regional forces intensified.

This period of political unrest set the stage for the rise of the Pala dynasty in Bengal.

7. Post-Gupta Bengal: The Khadga and Deva Dynasties

After the decline of Gauda, several independent dynasties rose in the south-eastern part of Bengal—the ancient Samatata region. The copperplates and archaeological remains of the Lalmai-Mainamati area are the principal sources of the history of these dynasties.

The Khadga Dynasty

In the seventh century the Khadga dynasty established its rule over Samatata. Copperplates tell us that among the kings of this dynasty were Khadgodyama, Jatakhadga, Devakhadga, Rajabhata and Balabhata. A Chinese Buddhist monk's account describes Rajabhata as a devout Buddhist and patron of religion.

Debased gold coins recovered from Rupban Mura in Mainamati are considered associated with this dynasty. Evidence of the Khadga rulers' connection with a centre called Devaparvata is found in the archaeological remains of the Lalmai-Mainamati area.

The Deva Dynasty

After the Khadgas, the Deva dynasty rose in Samatata in the eighth century. Their centre was Devaparvata, whose location researchers associate with the present Lalmai-Mainamati area of Cumilla.

Copperplates tell us that the kings of this dynasty were Shantideva, Viradeva, Anandadeva and Bhavadeva. Archaeological research links Anandadeva with the construction of Ananda Vihara and Bhavadeva with that of Shalban Vihara—two enormous Buddhist establishments of Mainamati.

It was during this era that the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang, while travelling through India, described the Samatata region in his account, portraying the flourishing of Buddhism and of many monasteries there. The pilgrim's account is an important testimony to the prosperity of ancient Samatata.

8. The Pala Dynasty: A Golden Chapter of Learning, Buddhism and Architecture

The Pala dynasty is an extremely important chapter in the history of ancient Bengal.

Around the middle of the eighth century Gopala ended Bengal's political instability and founded the Pala dynasty.

Under his successors Dharmapala and Devapala the Pala empire grew strong, and its political influence extended beyond Bengal.

In the last phase of Pala rule Ramapala established a capital at Vikramapura—the present Munshiganj area then became an important political centre.

One of the most important features of the Pala period was its patronage of Buddhism, education, art and architecture.

Somapura Mahavihara: A Centre of International Scholarship

Aerial view of Somapura Mahavihara (photo: Md. Ahsanul Haque Nayem / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Somapura Mahavihara at Paharpur, in the Badalgachhi upazila of Naogaon district, is one of the finest monuments of Pala-era architecture and scholarship.

Dharmapala is generally recognised as the founder of this great monastery.

This vast Buddhist vihara had 177 cells for monks on all four sides and a massive temple-like structure at the centre.

Its terracotta plaques, architectural style and layout express the excellence of ancient Bengal's art and building technology.

Somapura Mahavihara was not merely a place of worship; it was an important centre of education, philosophy, culture and scholarship.

UNESCO notes that its architectural style also influenced Buddhist architecture in South and Southeast Asia.

In 1985 Somapura Mahavihara was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The Charyapada: Earliest Monument of Bengali Literature

The Pala period is also of special importance in the history of the Bengali language. The Charyapada, composed roughly between the eighth and twelfth centuries, is regarded as the earliest monument of Bengali literature. In 1907 the scholar Haraprasad Shastri discovered this precious manuscript in the royal library of Nepal.

Compiled of 51 charyas, the collection offers a multi-dimensional picture of contemporary society, daily life, markets, rivers, trade and Buddhist Sahajiya practice. The Charyapada proves that in Pala-era Bengal literature and song were developing not only in Sanskrit but also in the vernacular language.

Atisha Dipankara: A Scholar of World Renown

Another glorious name in the scholarship of the Pala era is Atisha Dipankara Srijnana. He is believed to have been born around 982 AD in the village of Bajrayogini in Vikramapura. He became famous as the abbot of Vikramashila Mahavihara and later went to Tibet, where he played a crucial role in spreading Buddhist teaching and education. He remains honoured in the Tibetan Buddhist tradition to this day.

Other Important Contributions of the Pala Period

Several other important Buddhist centres of learning and religion grew in Bengal during Pala rule.

• Vikramashila Mahavihara.
• Jagaddala Mahavihara.
• Odantapuri Mahavihara.
• Buddhist sculpture and terracotta art.
• Manuscripts, philosophy and religious scholarship.

The influence of the Pala era was not confined to Bengal. It was connected with various parts of the subcontinent and with the wider Asian world of Buddhist learning, including Tibet.

9. Mainamati: The Legacy of Buddhist Civilisation in South-Eastern Bengal

The Lalmai-Mainamati area of Cumilla is another important archaeological centre of Bangladesh's ancient history.

Remains of numerous Buddhist viharas, temples, stupas and other structures built between the sixth and thirteenth centuries have been found here—meaning continuous settlement and civilisation flourished in this region for about seven hundred years.

Shalban Vihara at Mainamati (photo: CAPTAIN RAJU / Wikimedia Commons, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Important monuments of Mainamati include:

• Shalban Vihara.
• Kutila Mura.
• Charpatra Mura.
• Ananda Vihara.
• Bhoja Vihara.
• Itakhola Mura.
• Rupban Mura.
• Pakka Mura.

Shalban Vihara is especially notable. It is a planned Buddhist monastery where monks lived and religious education was conducted. Eight copperplates and about 400 gold and silver coins have been recovered here—evidence of the region's economic and administrative importance. Ananda Vihara is the largest monument of Mainamati; Kutila Mura contains three principal stupas enclosed by a wall, and Charpatra Mura yielded the remains of a rare Hindu temple of the Chandra period.

The Chandra, Harikela and Deva Dynasties in Mainamati's History

The name Mainamati is bound up with the legendary queen Mainamati—said to have been the mother of Govindachandra, the last known king of the Chandra dynasty. The founder of the Chandra dynasty, centred on ancient Vikramapura (tenth-eleventh centuries), was Sulakyachandra; Srichandra and Govindachandra were famous kings of this line. Their copperplates offer detailed information on contemporary administration, land systems and social life.

Extensive evidence of Harikela rule has also been found in the Mainamati area—hundreds of Harikela coins and the 1220 copperplate of Ranavankamalla Harikaladeva, which mentions an important centre called Pattikera. Evidence of the rule of the later Deva dynasty in thirteenth-century Samatata was also found here: the copperplate of Dasharathadeva, son of Damodaradeva, was recovered from Pakka Mura.

The archaeological remains of Mainamati reveal the spread of Buddhism, architecture, art and education in south-eastern Bengal.

This region proves that the cultural development of ancient Bengal was not confined to the north; centres of rich learning and religious practice also grew in the east and south-east.

10. The Sena Dynasty: Political Change in Ancient Bengal

When political weakness appeared in the last phase of the Pala dynasty, new powers rose in different parts of Bengal.

In the twelfth century the Sena dynasty established itself as an important political force in Bengal.

Vijaya Sena, Ballala Sena and Lakshmana Sena are the notable rulers of this dynasty.

Ballala Sena's name is also remembered in the history of Bengal's social organisation. Tradition holds that he composed the Kulinikrama and regulated various social customs, whose influence was felt in Bengali society for many centuries.

During Sena rule the influence of Brahmanical religious and social institutions grew. Land grants, religious rituals, literature and the cultivation of Sanskrit occupied an important place in the history of this period.

Under Lakshmana Sena, Nadiya was an important political and cultural centre. Jayadeva, the celebrated author of the Sanskrit poem Gita Govinda, is regarded as a poet associated with Lakshmana Sena's court.

At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the campaign of Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji (with the capture of Nadiya around 1203-04) opened a new chapter in Bengal's political history. He gave importance to Gauda as the centre of the conquered territory.

However, the end of Sena rule should not be seen as a simultaneous political change across all of Bengal. The influence of the old administration continued in various regions for some time.

11. Economy, Agriculture and Trade of Ancient Bengal

Agriculture and river-centred trade played an extremely important role in the growth of Bengal's ancient civilisation.

Fertile silt and river water created favourable conditions for farming.

The economic activities of the people of ancient Bengal included:

• Production of rice and other agricultural goods.
• Fishing.
• Textiles and weaving.
• Pottery and metalwork.
• Jewellery and bead-making.
• Transport of goods by waterways.
• Regional and long-distance trade.

The coins and beads of Wari-Bateshwar are important testimony to ancient commercial exchange. The hundreds of gold and silver coins recovered from the Mainamati area prove the development of a money economy in south-eastern Bengal.

Through Bengal's river routes, communication was established between the interior regions and seaports and other janapadas. Various parts of Bengal were also connected with the wider commercial networks of South and Southeast Asia.

However, archaeological evidence about every trade route or the specific destinations of goods is not equally available in all cases.

12. Religion, Philosophy and Cultural Diversity of Ancient Bengal

One of the defining features of ancient Bengal's history is its religious and cultural diversity.

At different times Buddhist, Hindu, Jain and local folk beliefs were practised in this region.

Buddhism received special patronage during Pala rule. At the same time, Hindu religious institutions, images of deities, temples and various rituals also flourished.

Archaeological sites such as Mahasthangarh, Mainamati and Paharpur yield religious and cultural remains of different periods.

This cultural diversity enriched the society of ancient Bengal. Religious institutions were not merely places of worship; in many cases they also functioned as centres of education, art, literature and social interaction.

In later times Sufi mysticism, Islamic architecture and various folk and devotional traditions developed in Bengal. Their combined influence made Bengal's long cultural history even more diverse.

13. Important Archaeological Sites of Bangladesh's Ancient History

The archaeological sites scattered across today's Bangladesh are essential sources for learning the history of ancient civilisation.

These sites are not merely tourist attractions; they are vital resources for research, education and historical inquiry into Bangladesh's past.

14. The Legacy of Ancient Civilisation in Today's Bangladesh

The history of ancient Bengal has played an important role in shaping the identity of today's Bangladesh.

Behind many elements of our language, literature, folk music, food culture, agriculture, architecture and social life lies a long historical evolution. From the Charyapada to today's Bengali literature—the journey of this language is part of a continuity of a thousand years.

River-centred living, an agriculture-based economy, weaving, pottery, folk festivals and various religious-cultural traditions are all part of that continuity.

The Buddhist architecture of ancient Bengal, Hindu temples, the later Islamic architecture and the various monuments of folk culture carry the identity of our multi-dimensional heritage.

Preserving this heritage is not merely about remembering the past; it is also the responsibility of carrying our history and cultural identity to future generations.

15. What We Must Do to Preserve Ancient History

Many chapters of Bangladesh's ancient history still await research.

These resources must be protected for future generations through the preservation of archaeological sites, regular research, scientific excavation, proper conservation of artefacts and the spread of history-based education.

In particular:

1. Illegal occupation of and damage to archaeological sites must be prevented.

2. Scientific conservation of ancient remains and artefacts must be ensured.

3. Local history must be collected and documented.

4. Cooperation with universities, researchers and archaeologists must increase.

5. Reliable historical information must be published in Bengali and English.

6. The younger generation must be made interested in archaeology and heritage preservation.

Conclusion: A Land Shaped by a Thousand Years of History

Bangladesh's history is no isolated chapter. It is part of a long continuity of the janapadas, urban civilisations, kingdoms, trade, religion, literature, art and ways of life of ancient Bengal.

The ancient ramparts of Mahasthangarh, the coins and beads of Wari-Bateshwar, the Somapura Mahavihara of Paharpur and the Buddhist establishments of Mainamati remind us that this land possesses a long and rich history.

To understand the identity of today's Bangladesh, we must know its past. Because history is not merely an account of kings or wars; history is the story of ordinary people's lives, their labour, beliefs, culture, scholarship and the building of civilisation.

Bengal's history is our roots, and knowing and preserving those roots is our shared responsibility.

Publisher: KushtiaTown.com
Category: History | Ancient Bengal | Heritage and Culture
Topic: The Ancient History and Archaeological Heritage of Bangladesh